Semantic Evolution of Words ‘drug’ [Friend], ‘tovarishch’ [Comrade], and ‘brat’ [Brother] and Their Derivatives in Russian Language from Eleventh to Seventeenth Centuries

This study focuses on lexemes that denote insiders or one's own people in the Russian language, specifically word families derived from substantives such as drug [friend], tovarishch [comrade], and brat [brother]. The primary objective is to analyze these lexical units with respect to their semantic evolution over the period spanning the eleventh through seventeenth centuries. Factors influencing this change are identified, including socio-economic transformations and historical-cultural developments. The relevance of this research lies in its exploration of the origins of these terms, uncovering their original meanings and elucidating the reasons behind their subsequent semantic shifts using various written sources from Ancient and Medieval Russia. Methodologically, the investigation employs descriptive analysis, comparative-historical reconstruction for establishing semantic relationships, lexicographic methods, and linguo-cultural analysis. It demonstrates that communities during Kievan Rus were designated by words like bratchina and druzhina, while groups formed based on shared activities were referred to as tovarishchestvo and tovarstvo. The phenomenon of sworn brotherhood (pobratimstvo) played a significant role in uniting individuals not merely on the basis of close kinship but also due to common interests, spiritual affinity, and professional endeavors, particularly military service. Substantives like druzhina and druzhba signified collectivities characterized by strong bonds among members rooted in mutual obligations.

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